What Is The Daily Requirement Of Vitamin D

What Is The Daily Requirement Of Vitamin D

Eating a whole egg gives you a large dose of vitamin D.

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Vitamin D isn't just for strong bones. You also need it to help cells grow, reduce inflammation, support neuromuscular functions and power your immune system. Vitamin D-3 is a type of vitamin D you'll see regularly in dietary supplements. You'll even get it from several foods, and your body makes it every time you expose your skin to sunlight. So unless your doctor recommends it, you may not need a D-3 supplement.

The Recommendation

Vitamin D-3 doesn't have its own separate recommendation. It fits in with the overall vitamin D daily requirement of 600 international units, or IUs, the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine reports. Sometimes though, vitamin D is listed in micrograms. Fifteen micrograms of vitamin D is the same as the 600 IU recommendation.

D-2 versus D-3

Vitamin D-2 isn't usually as prevalent as D-3, although you might find some supplements with D-2 and you can get it from mushrooms. Both forms of the vitamin are beneficial for biological processes and keeping your bones strong. But vitamin D-3 tends to be better for preventing fractures. Research on the exact fracture benefits of D-3 is mixed, but the Linus Pauling Institute notes that after comparing multiple studies, ingesting at least 700 international units of D-3 daily offers the greatest prevention against fractures.

Dietary Sources

Not many foods contain vitamin D, but ones that do or foods that are fortified with the vitamin typically provide vitamin D-3. Cod liver oil is one of the richest sources, giving you 1,360 international units in just 1 tablespoon. You'll get over 565 international units from 3 ounces of broiled swordfish, or nearly 450 IUs from the same amount of cooked sockeye salmon. If you have a whole egg, you'll ingest more than 40 international units of vitamin D -- it's found in the yolk. Fortified milk has between 115 and 125 IUs per cup, fortified yogurt has around 80 international units in 6 ounces, while fortified breakfast cereals with 10 percent of the daily value have 40 IUs of vitamin D per serving.

Getting Too Much

No matter which type of vitamin D you take from supplements or get from food, you need to stay below the tolerable upper intake level, known as the UL. This amount, which is 4,000 international units or 100 micrograms, is the most vitamin D you can have before it starts becoming problematic. Too much vitamin D can cause a drop in weight, excessive urination and an abnormal heart rhythm. In more severe cases, going over the UL raises your calcium levels, explains the Office of Dietary Supplements. This can damage blood vessels, tissues throughout your body and even your kidneys. If you decide to take a D-3 supplement, add up the vitamin D from all sources you eat to make sure you're not going over the UL.

What Is The Daily Requirement Of Vitamin D

Source: https://www.livestrong.com/article/384669-how-much-vitamin-d3-should-i-take-daily/

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Vitamin D Enriched Foods

Vitamin D Enriched Foods

Vitamin D is both a nutrient we eat and a hormone our bodies make. It is a fat-soluble vitamin that has long been known to help the body absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus; both are critical for building bone. Also, laboratory studies show that vitamin D can reduce cancer cell growth, help control infections and reduce inflammation. Many of the body's organs and tissues have receptors for vitamin D, which suggest important roles beyond bone health, and scientists are actively investigating other possible functions.

Few foods naturally contain vitamin D, though some foods are fortified with the vitamin. For most people, the best way to get enough vitamin D is taking a supplement because it is hard to eat enough through food. Vitamin D supplements are available in two forms: vitamin D2 ("ergocalciferol" or pre-vitamin D) and vitamin D3 ("cholecalciferol"). Both are also naturally occurring forms that are  produced in the presence of the sun's ultraviolet-B (UVB) rays, hence its nickname, "the sunshine vitamin," but D2 is produced in plants and fungi and D3 in animals, including humans. Vitamin D production in the skin is the primary natural source of vitamin D, but many people have insufficient levels because they live in places where sunlight is limited in winter, or because they have limited sun exposure due to being inside much of the time. Also, people with darker skin tend to have lower blood levels of vitamin D because the pigment (melanin) acts like a shade, reducing production of vitamin D (and also reducing damaging effects of sunlight on skin, including skin cancer).

Recommended Amounts

The Recommended Dietary Allowance for vitamin D provides the daily amount needed to maintain healthy bones and normal calcium metabolism in healthy people. It assumes minimal sun exposure.

RDA: The Recommended Dietary Allowance for adults 19 years and older is 600 IU daily for men and women, and for adults >70 years it is 800 IU daily.

UL: The Tolerable Upper Intake Level is the maximum daily intake unlikely to cause harmful effects on health. The UL for vitamin D for adults and children ages 9+ is 4,000 IU.

Many people may not be meeting the minimum requirement for the vitamin. NHANES data found that the median intake of vitamin D from food and supplements in women ages 51 to 71 years was 308 IU daily, but only 140 IU from food alone (including fortified products). [1] Worldwide, an estimated 1 billion people have inadequate levels of vitamin D in their blood, and deficiencies can be found in all ethnicities and age groups. [2-4]  In industrialized countries, doctors are seeing the resurgence of rickets, the bone-weakening disease that had been largely eradicated through vitamin D fortification. [5-7] There is scientific debate about how much vitamin D people need each day and what the optimal serum levels should be to prevent disease. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) released in November 2010 recommendations increasing the daily vitamin D intake for children and adults in the U.S. and Canada, to 600 IU per day. [1] The report also increased the upper limit from 2,000 to 4,000 IU per day. Although some groups such as The Endocrine Society recommend 1,500 to 2,000 IU daily to reach adequate serum levels of vitamin D, the IOM felt there was not enough evidence to establish a cause and effect link with vitamin D and health benefits other than for bone health.  Since that time,  new evidence has supported other benefits of consuming an adequate amount of vitamin D, although there is still not consensus on the amount considered to be adequate.

Vitamin D and Health

The role of vitamin D in disease prevention is a popular area of research, but clear answers about the benefit of taking amounts beyond the RDA are not conclusive. Although observational studies see a strong connection with lower rates of certain diseases in populations that live in sunnier climates or have higher serum levels of vitamin D, clinical trials that give people vitamin D supplements to affect a particular disease are still inconclusive. This may be due to different study designs, differences in the absorption rates of vitamin D in different populations, and different dosages given to participants. Learn more about the research on vitamin D and specific health conditions and diseases:

Bone health and muscle strength

Several studies link low vitamin D blood levels with an increased risk of fractures in older adults, and they suggest that vitamin D supplementation may prevent such fractures—as long as it is taken in a high enough dose. [8-12]

A meta-analysis of 12 randomized controlled trials that included more than 42,000 people 65+ years of age, most of them women, looked at vitamin D supplementation with or without calcium, and with calcium or a placebo. Researchers found that higher intakes of vitamin D supplements—about 500-800 IU per day—reduced hip and non-spine fractures by about 20%, while lower intakes (400 IU or less) failed to offer any fracture prevention benefit. [12]

A systematic review looked at the effect of vitamin D supplements taken with or without calcium on the prevention of hip fractures (primary outcome) and fractures of any type (secondary outcome) in older men and postmenopausal women 65+ years of age. It included 53 clinical trials with 91,791 participants who lived independently or in a nursing home or hospital. It did not find a strong association between vitamin D supplements alone and prevention of fractures of any type. However, it did find a small protective effect from all types of fractures when vitamin D was taken with calcium. All of the trials used vitamin D supplements containing 800 IU or less. [13]

Vitamin D may also help increase muscle strength, which in turn helps to prevent falls, a common problem that leads to substantial disability and death in older people. [14–16] A combined analysis of multiple studies found that taking 700 to 1,000 IU of vitamin D per day lowered the risk of falls by 19%, but taking 200 to 600 IU per day did not offer any such protection. [17]

Though taking 800-1,000 IU daily may have benefit for bone health in older adults, it is important to be cautious of very high dosage supplements. A clinical trial that gave women 70+ years of age a once-yearly dosage of vitamin D at 500,000 IU for five years caused a 15% increased risk of falls and a 26% higher fracture risk than women who received a placebo. [18] It was speculated that super-saturating the body with a very high dose given infrequently may have actually promoted lower blood levels of the active form of vitamin D that might not have occurred with smaller, more frequent doses. [13]

Cancer

Nearly 30 years ago, researchers noticed an intriguing relationship between colon cancer deaths and geographic location: People who lived at higher latitudes, such as in the northern U.S., had higher rates of death from colon cancer than people who lived closer to the equator. [19] Many scientific hypotheses about vitamin D and disease stem from studies that have compared solar radiation and disease rates in different countries. These studies can be a good starting point for other research but don't provide the most definitive information. The sun's UVB rays are weaker at higher latitudes, and in turn, people's vitamin D blood levels in these locales tend to be lower. This led to the hypothesis that low vitamin D levels might somehow increase colon cancer risk. [3]

Animal and laboratory studies have found that vitamin D can inhibit the development of tumors and slow the growth of existing tumors including those from the breast, ovary, colon, prostate, and brain. In humans, epidemiological studies show that higher serum levels of vitamin D are associated with substantially lower rates of colon, pancreatic, prostate, and other cancers, with the evidence strongest for colorectal cancer. [20-32]

However, clinical trials have not found a consistent association:

The Women's Health Initiative trial, which followed roughly 36,000 women for an average of seven years, failed to find any reduction in colon or breast cancer risk in women who received daily supplements of 400 IU of vitamin D and 1,000 mg of calcium, compared with those who received a placebo. [33,34] Limitations of the study were suggested: 1) the relatively low dose of vitamin D given, 2) some people in the placebo group decided on their own to take extra calcium and vitamin D supplements, minimizing the differences between the placebo group and the supplement group, and 3) about one-third of the women assigned to vitamin D did not take their supplements. 4) seven years may be too short to expect a reduction in cancer risk. [35,36]

A large clinical trial called the VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL) followed 25,871 men and women 50+ years of age free of any cancers at the start of the study who took either a 2,000 IU vitamin D supplement or placebo daily for a median of five years. [37] The findings did not show significantly different rates of breast, prostate, and colorectal cancer between the vitamin D and placebo groups. The authors noted that a longer follow-up period would be necessary to better assess potential effects of supplementation, as many cancers take at least 5-10 years to develop.

Although vitamin D does not seem to be a major factor in reducing cancer incidence, evidence including that from randomized trials suggests that having higher vitamin D status may improve survival if one develops cancer.  In the VITAL trial, a lower death rate from cancer was observed in those assigned to take vitamin D, and this benefit seemed to increase over time since starting on vitamin D. A meta-analysis of randomized trials of vitamin D, which included the VITAL study, found a 13% statistically significant lower risk of cancer mortality in those assigned to vitamin D compared to placebo. [38] These findings are consistent with observational data, which suggest that vitamin D may have a stronger effect on cancer progression than for incidence.

Heart disease

The heart is basically a large muscle, and like skeletal muscle, it has receptors for vitamin D. [39] Immune and inflammatory cells that play a role in cardiovascular disease conditions like atherosclerosis are regulated by vitamin D. [40] The vitamin also helps to keep arteries flexible and relaxed, which in turn helps to control high blood pressure. [41]

In the Health Professionals Follow-up Study nearly 50,000 healthy men were followed for 10 years. [42] Those who had the lowest levels of vitamin D were twice as likely to have a heart attack as men who had the highest levels. Meta-analyses of epidemiological studies have found that people with the lowest serum levels of vitamin D had a significantly increased risk of strokes and any heart disease event compared with those with the highest levels. [40;43-46]

However, taking vitamin D supplements has not been found to reduce cardiovascular risk. A meta-analysis of 51 clinical trials did not demonstrate that vitamin D supplementation lowered the risk of heart attack, stroke, or deaths from cardiovascular disease. [47] The VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL) came to the same conclusion; it followed 25,871 men and women free of cardiovascular disease who took either a 2,000 IU vitamin D supplement or placebo daily for a median of five years. No association was found between taking the supplements and a lower risk of major cardiovascular events (heart attack, stroke, or death from cardiovascular causes) compared with the placebo. [37]

Type 2 diabetes

Vitamin D deficiency may negatively affect the biochemical pathways that lead to the development of Type 2 diabetes (T2DM), including impairment of beta cell function in the pancreas, insulin resistance, and inflammation. Prospective observational studies have shown that higher vitamin D blood levels are associated with lower rates of T2DM. [48]

More than 83,000 women without diabetes at baseline were followed in the Nurses' Health Study for the development of T2DM. Vitamin D and calcium intakes from diet and supplements were assessed throughout the 20-year study. [49] The authors found that when comparing the women with the highest intakes of vitamin D from supplements with women with the lowest intakes, there was a 13% lower risk of developing T2DM. The effect was even stronger when vitamin D was combined with calcium: there was a 33% lower risk of T2DM in women when comparing the highest intakes of calcium and vitamin D from supplements (>1,200 mg, >800 IU daily) with the lowest intakes (<600 mg, 400 IU).

A randomized clinical trial gave 2,423 adults who had prediabetes either 4000 IU of vitamin D or a placebo daily for two years. The majority of participants did not have vitamin D deficiency at the start of the study. At two years, vitamin D blood levels in the supplement versus placebo group was 54.3 ng/mL versus 28.2 ng/mL, respectively, but no significant differences were observed in rates of T2DM at the 2.5 year follow-up. [50] The authors noted that a lack of effect of vitamin D may have been due to the majority of participants having vitamin D blood levels in a normal range of greater than 20 ng/mL, which is considered an acceptable level to reduce health risks.  Notably, among the participants who had the lowest blood levels of vitamin D at the beginning of the study, vitamin D supplementation did reduce risk of diabetes. This is consistent with the important concept that taking additional vitamin D may not benefit those who already have adequate blood levels, but those with initially low blood levels may benefit.

Immune function

Vitamin D's role in regulating the immune system has led scientists to explore two parallel research paths: Does vitamin D deficiency contribute to the development of multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, and other so-called "autoimmune" diseases, where the body's immune system attacks its own organs and tissues? And could vitamin D supplements help boost our body's defenses to fight infectious disease, such as tuberculosis and seasonal flu?

Multiple Sclerosis
The rate of multiple sclerosis (MS) is increasing in both developed and developing countries, with an unclear cause. However, a person's genetic background plus environmental factors including inadequate vitamin D and UVB exposure have been identified to increase risk. [51] Vitamin D was first proposed over 40 years ago as having a role in MS given observations at the time including that rates of MS were much higher far north (or far south) of the equator than in sunnier climates, and that geographic regions with diets high in fish had lower rates of MS. [52] A prospective study of dietary intake of vitamin D found women with daily intake above 400 IU had a 40% lower risk of MS. [53] In a study among healthy young adults in the US, white men and women with the highest vitamin D serum levels had a 62% lower risk of developing MS than those with the lowest vitamin D levels. [54] The study didn't find this effect among black men and women, possibly because there were fewer black study participants and most of them had low vitamin D levels, making it harder to find any link between vitamin D and MS if one exists. Another prospective study in young adults from Sweden also found a 61% lower risk of MS with higher serum vitamin D levels; [55] and a prospective study among young Finnish women found that low serum vitamin D levels were associated with a 43% increased risk of MS. [56] In prospective studies of persons with MS, higher vitamin D levels have been associated with reduced disease activity and progression. [57,58] While several clinical trials are underway to examine vitamin D as a treatment in persons with MS, there are no clinical trials aimed at prevention of MS, likely because MS is a rare disease and the trial would need to be large and of long duration. Collectively, the current evidence suggests that low vitamin D may have a causal role in MS and if so, approximately 40% of cases may be prevented by correcting vitamin D insufficiency. [59] This conclusion has been strengthened substantially by recent evidence that genetically determined low levels of vitamin D predict higher risk of multiple sclerosis.

Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is another disease that varies with geography—a child in Finland is about 400 times more likely to develop T1D than a child in Venezuela. [60] While this may largely be due to genetic differences, some studies suggest that T1D rates are lower in sunnier areas. Early evidence suggesting that vitamin D may play a role in T1D comes from a 30-year study that followed more than 10,000 Finnish children from birth: Children who regularly received vitamin D supplements during infancy had a nearly 90% lower risk of developing type 1 diabetes than those who did not receive supplements. [61] However, multiple studies examining the association between dietary vitamin D or trials supplementing children at high risk for T1D with vitamin D have produced mixed and inconclusive results [62] Approximately 40% of T1D cases begin in adulthood. A prospective study among healthy young adults in the US found that white individuals with the highest levels of serum vitamin D had a 44% lower risk of developing T1D in adulthood than those with the lowest levels. [63] No randomized controlled trials on vitamin D and adult onset T1D have been conducted, and it is not clear that they would be possible to conduct. More research is needed in this area.

Flu and the Common Cold
The flu virus wreaks the most havoc in the winter, abating in the summer months. This seasonality led a British doctor to hypothesize that a sunlight-related "seasonal stimulus" triggered influenza outbreaks. [64] More than 20 years after this initial hypothesis, several scientists published a paper suggesting that vitamin D may be the seasonal stimulus. [65] Among the evidence they cite:

• • Vitamin D levels are lowest in the winter months. [65]
  • The active form of vitamin D tempers the damaging inflammatory response of some white blood cells, while it also boosts immune cells' production of microbe-fighting proteins. [65]
  • Children who have vitamin D-deficiency rickets are more likely to get respiratory infections, while children exposed to sunlight seem to have fewer respiratory infections. [65]
  • Adults who have low vitamin D levels are more likely to report having had a recent cough, cold, or upper respiratory tract infection. [66]

A randomized controlled trial in Japanese school children tested whether taking daily vitamin D supplements would prevent seasonal flu. [67] The trial followed nearly 340 children for four months during the height of the winter flu season. Half of the study participants received pills that contained 1,200 IU of vitamin D; the other half received placebo pills. Researchers found that type A influenza rates in the vitamin D group were about 40% lower than in the placebo group; there was no significant difference in type B influenza rates.

Although randomized controlled trials exploring the potential of vitamin D to prevent other acute respiratory infections have yielded mixed results, a large meta-analysis of individual participant data indicated that daily or weekly vitamin D supplementation lowers risk of acute respiratory infections. [68] This effect was particularly prominent for very deficient individuals.

The findings from this large meta-analysis have raised the possibility that low vitamin D levels may also increase risk of or severity of novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) infection. Although there is no direct evidence on this issue because this such a new disease, avoiding low levels of vitamin D makes sense for this and other reasons. Thus, if there is reason to believe that levels might be low, such as having darker skin or limited sun exposure, taking a supplement of 1000 or 2000 IU per day is reasonable. This amount is now part of many standard multiple vitamin supplements and inexpensive.

More research is needed before we can definitively say that vitamin D protects against the flu and other acute respiratory infections. Even if vitamin D has some benefit, don't skip your flu shot. And when it comes to limiting risk of COVID-19, it is important to practice careful social distancing and hand washing.

Tuberculosis
Before the advent of antibiotics, sunlight and sun lamps were part of the standard treatment for tuberculosis (TB). [69] More recent research suggests that the "sunshine vitamin" may be linked to TB risk. Several case-control studies, when analyzed together, suggest that people diagnosed with tuberculosis have lower vitamin D levels than healthy people of similar age and other characteristics. [70] Such studies do not follow individuals over time, so they cannot tell us whether vitamin D deficiency led to the increased TB risk or whether taking vitamin D supplements would prevent TB. There are also genetic differences in the receptor that binds vitamin D, and these differences may influence TB risk. [71] Again, more research is needed.

Risk of premature death

A promising report in the Archives of Internal Medicine suggests that taking vitamin D supplements may reduce overall mortality rates: A combined analysis of multiple studies found that taking modest levels of vitamin D supplements was associated with a statistically significant 7% reduction in mortality from any cause. [72] The analysis looked at the findings from 18 randomized controlled trials that enrolled a total of nearly 60,000 study participants; most of the study participants took between 400 and 800 IU of vitamin D per day for an average of five years. Keep in mind that this analysis has several limitations, chief among them the fact that the studies it included were not designed to explore mortality in general, or explore specific causes of death.  A recent meta-analysis suggests that this reduction in mortality is driven mostly by a reduction in cancer mortality. [38] More research is needed before any broad claims can be made about vitamin D and mortality. [73]

Food Sources

Few foods are naturally rich in vitamin D3. The best sources are the flesh of fatty fish and fish liver oils. Smaller amounts are found in egg yolks, cheese, and beef liver. Certain mushrooms contain some vitamin D2; in addition some commercially sold mushrooms contain higher amounts of D2 due to intentionally being exposed to high amounts of ultraviolet light. Many foods and supplements are fortified with vitamin D like dairy products and cereals.

• Cod liver oil
• Salmon
• Swordfish
• Tuna fish
• Orange juice fortified with vitamin D
• Dairy and plant milks fortified with vitamin D
• Sardines
• Beef liver
• Egg yolk
• Fortified cereals

Is There a Difference Between Vitamin D3 and Vitamin D2 Supplements?

If you purchase vitamin D supplements, you may see two different forms: vitamin D2 and vitamin D3. Vitamin D2 is made from plants and is found in fortified foods and some supplements. Vitamin D3 is naturally produced in the human body and is found in animal foods. There is ongoing debate whether vitamin D3 "cholecalciferol" is better than vitamin D2 "ergocalciferol" at increasing blood levels of the vitamin. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials that compared the effects of vitamin D2 and D3 supplements on blood levels found that D3 supplements tended to raise blood concentrations of the vitamin more and sustained those levels longer than D2. [74,75] Some experts cite vitamin D3 as the preferred form as it is naturally produced in the body and found in most foods that naturally contain the vitamin.

Ultraviolet Light

Vitamin D3 can be formed when a chemical reaction occurs in human skin, when a steroid called 7-dehydrocholesterol is broken down by the sun's UVB light or so-called "tanning" rays. The amount of the vitamin absorbed can vary widely. The following are conditions that decrease exposure to UVB light and therefore lessen vitamin D absorption:

• Use of sunscreen; correctly applied sunscreen can reduce vitamin D absorption by more than 90%. [76]
• Wearing full clothing that covers the skin.
• Spending limited time outdoors.
• Darker skin tones due to having higher amounts of the pigment melanin, which acts as a type of natural sunscreen. [77]
• Older ages when there is a decrease in 7-dehydrocholesterol levels and changes in skin, and a population that is likely to spend more time indoors.
• Certain seasons and living in northern latitudes above the equator where UVB light is weaker. [76] In the northern hemisphere, people who live in Boston (U.S.), Edmonton (Canada), and Bergen (Norway) can't make enough vitamin D from the sun for 4, 5, and 6 months out of the year, respectively. [76] In the southern hemisphere, residents of Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Cape Town (South Africa) make far less vitamin D from the sun during their winter months (June through August) than they can during their spring and summer months. [76] The body stores vitamin D from summer sun exposure, but it must last for many months. By late winter, many people in these higher-latitude locales are deficient. [77]

Note that because ultraviolet rays can cause skin cancer, it is important to avoid excessive sun exposure and in general, tanning beds should not be used.

Signs of Deficiency and Toxicity

Deficiency

Vitamin D deficiency may occur from a lack in the diet, poor absorption, or having a metabolic need for higher amounts. If one is not eating enough vitamin D and does not receive enough ultraviolet sun exposure over an extended period (see section above), a deficiency may arise. People who cannot tolerate or do not eat milk, eggs, and fish, such as those with a lactose intolerance or who follow a vegan diet, are at higher risk for a deficiency. Other people at high risk of vitamin D deficiency include:

• People with inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease) or other conditions that disrupt the normal digestion of fat. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that depends on the gut's ability to absorb dietary fat.
• People who are obese tend to have lower blood vitamin D levels. Vitamin D accumulates in excess fat tissues but is not easily available for use by the body when needed. Higher doses of vitamin D supplementation may be needed to achieve a desirable blood level. Conversely, blood levels of vitamin D rise when obese people lose weight.
• People who have undergone gastric bypass surgery, which typically removes the upper part of the small intestine where vitamin D is absorbed.

Conditions resulting from prolonged vitamin D deficiency:

• Rickets: A condition in infants and children of soft bones and skeletal deformities caused by failure of bone tissue to harden.
• Osteomalacia: A condition in adults of weak and softened bones that can be reversed with supplementation. This is different than osteoporosis, in which the bones are porous and brittle and the condition is irreversible.

Toxicity

Vitamin D toxicity most often occurs from taking supplements. The low amounts of the vitamin found in food are unlikely to reach a toxic level, and a high amount of sun exposure does not lead to toxicity because excess heat on the skin prevents D3 from forming. It is advised to not take daily vitamin D supplements containing more than 4,000 IU unless monitored under the supervision of your doctor.

Symptoms of toxicity:

• Anorexia
• Weight loss
• Irregular heart beat
• Hardening of blood vessels and tissues due to increased blood levels of calcium, potentially leading to damage of the heart and kidneys

Did You Know?

• Catching the sun's rays in a sunny office or driving in a car unfortunately won't help to obtain vitamin D as window glass completely blocks UVB ultraviolet light.

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Updated March 2020

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John D. Rockefeller: The Wealthiest American of All Time

Photo Courtesy: Oscar White/Wikimedia Commons

John D. Rockefeller's name is synonymous with wealth, and he's one of the most controversial business tycoons in America's history. From his monopolistic Standard Oil to various ventures in banking and shipping, Rockefeller's empire continued to thrive, even after infamous antitrust suits.

Regardless of opinions about his ethics, John D. Rockefeller was able to overcome times of war and turmoil to turn a considerable profit. Determining how he became so accomplished involves taking a more in-depth look into the life of America's wealthiest man.

Son of a Con Artist

John D. Rockefeller was the son of William Avery "Devil Bill" Rockefeller, who was a businessman and lumberman before becoming a well-known con artist. He claimed to be a "botanic physician" who sold various elixirs to unsuspecting customers. Devil Bill was also involved with swindling customers using his other business of land speculation.

Photo Courtesy: Find A Grave/Wikimedia Commons

Bill found desperate farmers who could barely bring in sufficient income. He gave them loans with a 12% interest rate. The high-risk borrowers often fell to foreclosure, allowing Rockefeller to swoop in and take their farms.

Scammed by His Father

Devil Bill lived the life of a vagabond and was away from home for extended periods. Bill's mistress was also the family housekeeper; he fathered two children with her. A patient homemaker, Devil Bill's wife (John's mother) put up with his double life, including bigamy with his mistress.

Photo Courtesy: Library of Congress/Flickr

John and his brothers were also victims of their father's grifting. Bill even said, "I cheat my boys every chance I get. I want to make them sharp." The only business trait John earned from his father was to enter a deal that was a sure thing.

Mentored by His Mother

Because Bill was rarely home, John helped his mother, Eliza, as much as he could. He completed various household chores and earned money raising turkeys and selling potatoes and candy. Eliza, a devout Baptist, taught John to be prudent with his income as "willful waste makes woeful want."

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Geni.com

Eliza was a far more significant influence on John than his father was. She inspired him to share his wealth, and he later became an ardent philanthropist. "From the beginning, I was trained to work, to save and to give," he claimed. His respect for money led to his training as a bookkeeper.

Beginnings in Bookkeeping

Before becoming an oil tycoon, John D. Rockefeller attended the first public high school in Cleveland, Ohio. Following graduation, his interest in money led to the completion of a 10-week business course studying bookkeeping. John was an academic and took his education seriously.

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

He earned his first financial role for a produce company when he was only 16 years old. He had a penchant for transportation costs and business operations. John began earning $16 per month as an apprentice, and eventually, he received $58 each month based on his successful collections capabilities.

A Musical Background

John possessed an innate business understanding that his mother helped nurture. He was honest yet firm. A skilled communicator, Rockefeller became known for his ability to negotiate transportation rates with canal owners, ship captains and freight agents based on market conditions.

Photo Courtesy: Project Gutenberg/Public Domain

If he hadn't been such an expert at debt collection and negotiation, leading to significant earnings, Rockefeller might have wound up in a completely different place. He had a passion and fondness for music and once considered it for a career.

Rockefeller's Personal Loan Shark

Following his time as a bookkeeper, John D. Rockefeller decided to improve his odds of success. Taking what he had learned from his time in the produce-commission business, he joined forces with his partner, Maurice B. Clark. Clark contributed $2,000 of their total $4,000 capital, but John only had $800 saved.

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Rockefeller borrowed the rest from his father; Devil Bill gave John a loan of $1,000. Even though it was for his son, he still charged an interest rate. Lower than his standard 12%, Bill offered the loan at 10% interest.

Abolitionist Draft Dodger

The Civil War caused massive food shortages due to the need for military supplies. Rockefeller's business boomed as the war dragged on. John's brother Frank fought for the North, but John was able to avoid service. He did so by donating to the Union army. It was a common practice for wealthy people to stay off the battlefield.

Photo Courtesy: Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons

John was a Republican and robust abolitionist who voted for Abraham Lincoln. He considered it his duty as a wealthy American patriot to donate to the Northern cause, something that was instilled upon him by his mother.

The Civil War and Oil

The federal government began subsidizing oil, which drove the price from $0.35 a barrel to $13.75 a barrel in 1862. Even with high transportation costs and additional levies on refined oil, Rockefeller and his partner decided to enter this new boom. They switched from produce to oil in 1863 with the purchase of a refinery near Cleveland.

Photo Courtesy: Internet Archive Book Image/Flickr

Most companies kept 60% of the oil product as kerosene and dumped the rest. A thrifty Rockefeller sold the remaining 40% for other uses. In 1865, he bought out his partners, which he said determined his career.

Oil Profits Grow

Unlike today, the oil industry was relatively small. Consumers used whale oil to light candles and heat homes, although the product was far too expensive for middle class consumers. Throughout the 1870s, kerosene became far more accessible and easier to transport due to reduced freight rates.

Photo Courtesy: State Library of South Australia/Flickr

Rockefeller's thrifty nature and use of the entirety of his oil led to cheaper availability of kerosene and other oil byproducts. Rockefeller became the most profitable oil refiner and the largest shipper in Ohio. He made his product accessible to consumers, no matter their socioeconomic class.

The Cleveland Massacre

John D. Rockefeller's keen business nature led to Standard Oil's exponential growth. As a practice, John pinpointed his least-efficient competitors and targeted them for purchase. Based on his low costs and ability to raise capital, he was able to undercut his competitors and force them to sell.

Photo Courtesy: Internet Archive Book Images/Flickr

He went through a brief period known as "The Cleveland Massacre" in which he made secret deals leading to Standard Oil's attainment of 22 out of 26 Ohio competitors within four months. The remaining competitors realized that resistance was futile and made deals with him for the purchase of their companies.

Vertical Integration Creation

Some people picture business tycoons as ruthless businessmen who want to destroy their competition. John D. Rockefeller's view was far more messianic. He thought of himself more as a savior to the industry rather than its sole leader. His ownership of pipelines and other delivery methods kept prices low and increased competition.

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

As Rockefeller's successor put it, "That orderly, economic, efficient flow is what we now, many years later, call 'vertical integration.' I do not know whether Mr. Rockefeller ever used the word 'integration.' I only know he conceived the idea."

Other Than Oil...

By the late 1870s, Standard Oil was responsible for 90% of the United States' refined oil. The company was growing both vertically and horizontally. Its products had found their way into nearly every American household. Standard Oil's increased market share and profits allowed the company to expand and begin marketing other products.

Photo Courtesy: Internet Archive Book Images/Flickr

Because Standard Oil was using nearly 100% of the oil it produced, the company developed over 300 other oil-based products. It was responsible for introducing everything from chewing gum and petroleum jelly to paint and tar. Rockefeller had become a millionaire at this point, worth $26 million by today's exchange rates.

Standard Oil vs. Pennsylvania Railroad

Because Standard Oil was investing in oil pipelines as a less-expensive transportation method, railroad companies began to notice — especially Standard Oil's principal hauler, Pennsylvania Railroad. The railroad formed a subsidiary to enter the oil-refining industry, leading to a considerable business battle and price war.

Photo Courtesy: Internet Archive Book Images/Flickr

Standard held back its shipments and reduced prices with the help of other railroads. After a hard-fought battle, Pennsylvania Railroad had to concede. The company sold its oil interests to Standard Oil, increasing Standard's stranglehold on the industry. The fight led to the first of many legal battles in Standard's existence.

Developing Anxiety

In the wake of Standard Oil's battle with Pennsylvania Railroad, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania took action and indicted John D. Rockefeller for monopolizing the oil industry. Lawsuits from other states trickled in, causing Standard Oil to receive a large amount of media attention, and subsequent criticism, for its business practices.

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Standard's legal conflicts lasted through the end of the 1880s. Under considerable stress, Rockefeller could not sleep. The constant attacks from the press caused him to say, "All the fortune that I have made has not served to compensate me for the anxiety of that period."

Standard Oil Trust

Standard Oil already gained a 90% market share of the American oil industry, even though hundreds of competitors existed. The criticisms of Standard Oil underselling, pricing and offering transportation rebates had allowed the company to enter a majority of American households. New York World called the company "the most cruel, impudent, pitiless and grasping monopoly that ever fastened upon a country."

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Standard achieved this by creating different corporations; it was difficult for companies to operate in multiple states at the time. Standard Oil's lawyers centralized the company's 41 holdings by creating the Standard Oil Trust.

The Largest Company in the World

Criticized by competitors and consumers, the Standard Oil Trust caused the company to become the wealthiest and largest business in the world. Standard Oil was seemingly unstoppable and made large profits year over year. Many other companies saw Standard's invincibility and formed trusts of their own.

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

At its peak, Standard Oil boasted over 100,000 employees and owned 20,000 wells and 5,000 tank cars with 4,000 miles of pipeline. Increased public scrutiny caused Rockefeller to realize he would never own 100% of the country's oil. Standard's market share began to drop.

Creating the Oil Futures Market

During Standard Oil's market share drop, John D. Rockefeller's innovative business mind continued to grow. He changed the way the company charged for oil storage based on market conditions. Rockefeller traded certificates to speculators against any oil that was stored in his pipelines, leading to the first oil futures market.

Photo Courtesy: The Rockefeller Archive Center/Wikimedia Commons

The new and innovative market established all oil prices for the foreseeable future. In 1882, the National Petroleum Exchange opened to facilitate this trading. The oil industry was now an international phenomenon with oil fields discovered in Russia and Asia.

Other Oil-based Products

Kerosene was finally on its way out as a source of illumination due to the invention of the light bulb. Standard Oil began to develop the natural gas market in the United States. Cheaper oil fields in Russia, the development of the world's first oil tanker and wealthy financiers, including the Rothschilds, forced Rockefeller to adapt.

Photo Courtesy: Public Domain/Early American Automobiles

Primarily considered a waste product, automobile gasoline wasn't a common product for many oil companies at the time. As it had always done, Standard Oil found a niche market and proved once again that it wasn't going to bow to market pressures.

Relocation to the Big Apple

In the early 1880s, Standard Oil's headquarters relocated to New York City, and Rockefeller became a central business icon. He purchased a house near the mansion of William Henry Vanderbilt on 54th Street. Even with his expansive wealth and highly recognizable face, John D. Rockefeller took the elevated train to his office each day.

Photo Courtesy: Internet Archive Book Images/Flickr

He was unable to keep himself from the masses. On a regular basis, Rockefeller received threats to his life. Countless residents knew how much money he had and continually asked for charity, yet he kept utilizing public transportation.

The Beginning of Standard Oil's End

Businesses were getting out of hand by the late 1890s. Unions formed to protect workers, but the unions themselves weren't immune to corruption. Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 to regulate the unions. States used the law to fight against Standard Oil's trust.

Photo Courtesy: USCapitol/Flickr

Ohio took the first step by using its antitrust laws to force Standard Oil of Ohio from the rest of the corporation. From there, other states followed, and the official breakup of Standard Oil's trust had begun. Rockefeller did everything he could to keep his company relevant.

Rockefeller vs. Carnegie

Because of the breakup of Standard Oil's trust, the conglomerate entered the iron ore industry, including its means of transportation. The new venture caused a clash with American steel tycoon Andrew Carnegie, who was no stranger to competition. Newspaper cartoonists aimed their criticisms at the two millionaires during that period.

Photo Courtesy: Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons

Not ready for another round of business and legal battles, Rockefeller began to consider his retirement. J.P. Morgan swooped in and purchased both Carnegie's steel and Rockefeller's iron interests. Rockefeller earned a place on the board of directors and $58 million in total investments.

Tarnishing Rockefeller's Legacy

In 1904, Ida Tarbell wrote a work describing the various shady dealings and practices of John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil. She wrote about the price wars, marketing techniques and legal battles in the publication "The History of the Standard Oil Company." It all but tarnished the legacy of America's richest man.

Photo Courtesy: J. Ottmann Lith, Co., 1904/Wikimedia Commons

The backlash against Rockefeller was staggering, and even Tarbell herself was surprised by the outcome. "I never had an animus against their size and wealth, never objected to their corporate form," she said, "but they had never played fair, and that ruined their greatness for me."

Changed Opinions

The backlash from Ida Tarbell's "The History of the Standard Oil Company" had a personal effect on Rockefeller. He never publicly shamed "that misguided woman" who wrote the publication. Still, Rockefeller's private account of the writer, whose father he had driven out of the oil business, was quite harsh.

Photo Courtesy: Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons

John D. Rockefeller was notorious for avoiding the press. He took this opportunity to conduct a press tour to improve his public perception. The views that his company followed established laws and ethical business practices fell upon deaf ears.

The U.S. vs. Standard Oil

John D. Rockefeller's tenacity continued into the 20th century, and John and his son furthered their fight to consolidate their oil business. The state of New Jersey's laws changed in 1909 and allowed for them to incorporate their holdings under one company, and Rockefeller was temporarily back in business.

Photo Courtesy: Tullio Saba/Flickr

The Supreme Court of the United States had something else in mind. In 1911, the high court found that Standard Oil had violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. The court forced the illegal monopoly to break up. Standard Oil was no longer the largest oil company in the world.

Breaking Up Standard Oil

Because the Supreme Court had ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly, the Sherman Antitrust Act forced it to break up its assets. Standard Oil was to become 34 new companies. Many of those companies are still in existence today and are quite recognizable.

Photo Courtesy: Ben P L/Flickr

These include ConocoPhillips, Amoco (which is part of British Petroleum), Chevron, ExxonMobil and Pennzoil. Rockefeller held on to significant shares in each of the companies. Although he was no longer in control of the oil industry, he profited tremendously.

The Rockefeller Dynasty

John D. Rockefeller was married to Laura Celestia Spelman in 1864. From 1866 through 1874, the couple had four daughters, Elizabeth, Alice, Alta and Edith, and one son, John Jr. The kids also had children, many of whom went on to lead very successful lives in public service and business.

Photo Courtesy: Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons

John Jr.'s youngest son, David, served as CEO of Chase Manhattan Bank for over 20 years. His second son, Nelson, was elected governor of New York before becoming the 41st Vice President of the United States. Another son, Winthrop, served as the Governor of Arkansas.

Family Philanthropy

John D. Rockefeller was the original creator of the conditional grant. The beneficiary was required to "root the institution in the affections of as many people as possible who, as contributors, become personally concerned, and thereafter may be counted on to give the institution their watchful interest and cooperation."

Photo Courtesy: Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons

John's wife, Laura, was also a supporter of civil rights and equality. They offered a massive donation to the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary in Atlanta. The college for African-American women was later named Spelman College in honor of his wife's family name.

Religious Views

During John D. Rockefeller's adolescent years, the Second Great Awakening drew people to various Protestant churches. He attended the Erie Street Baptist Church with his mother, Eliza. The revival period promoted values such as hard work and good deeds, something Rockefeller attributed his philanthropic work to in his later years.

Photo Courtesy: National Archives/Wikimedia Commons

His mother encouraged him to put a few cents into the offering basket each Sunday. He ultimately related charity to the church. Later, he would remember, "It was at this moment that the financial plan of my life was formed."

Health Issues and Death

John D. Rockefeller suffered from moderate depression. During the stressful period of his life, while he was dealing with negative press and lawsuits, he developed alopecia. The condition led to considerable hair loss. To cover it up, he began to wear toupeés.

Photo Courtesy: Library of Congress/picryl.com

Rockefeller was a workhorse, and his health improved as his work decreased. Despite his ambition to live until he was 100 years old, John D. Rockefeller passed away due to complications related to arteriosclerosis just shy of his 98th birthday in 1937. He died in Florida, and his body rests in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland.

The Rockefeller Legacy

John D. Rockefeller is known as the richest man in United States history. A real example of the American Dream, the name Rockefeller will forever be associated with wealth and success. Regardless of his controversies, no one can dispute his ability to make a business thrive, even during wartime and economic downturns.

Photo Courtesy: iklatt/needpix

By the beginning of World War I, Rockefeller was worth around $900 million. According to his obituary, the business tycoon amassed nearly $1.5 billion from Standard Oil and other businesses in banking, shipping, mining, railroads and various other enterprises.

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Source: https://www.life123.com/lifestyle/john-rockefeller-wealthiest-american?utm_content=params%3Ao%3D740009%26ad%3DdirN%26qo%3DserpIndex

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